Showing posts with label AZTECI. Show all posts
Showing posts with label AZTECI. Show all posts

Thursday, June 21, 2012

Quetzalcoatl Has Returned From The East As His Black Twin Tezcatlipoca

Jacksonville, Florida

The City Of Quetzalcoatl's Return

The New Sun City In The Sunshine State - A Photo Album
http://josephalmighty.multiply.com/photos/album/8

- Quetzalcoatl -
The Ancient Jaguar Sun Ruler
Of The American Continent

The Plummed - Feathered Serpent,

Son Of God & Ascended Master

One of the most prominent traditions of Central America and Mexico is centered on a deity called “Quetzalcoatl” (pronounced kĕt-səl-kwä-təl). It is a tradition that both touches and colors the native cultures that live there, as explained by author Constance Irwin—

“In all of America’s past no figure is more exciting, more tantalizing, or more frustrating than that of the Fair God Quetzalcoatl (also known as Kukulkan to the Maya, Gukumatz to the Quiché & Viracocha to the Inca).

The name “Quetzalcoatl” means “feathered serpent.” It is derived from two words in the Nahuatl (Aztec) language—quetzal and coatl. Coatl means “serpent.” Quetzal is the name of a rare and highly revered Central American bird with long tail-covert feathers. The term for quetzal also means “sacred” in several Mesoamerican languages.

Jaguarwoman's "Quetzal Bird"

This is a lush, digitally painted tropical Quetzal bird which is provided both as a perching bird on a transparent background and also incorporated into a complete tropical composition.

http://www.jaguarwoman.com/store/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=422

-The Quetzal Bird of Central America-
The tradition of Quetzalcoatl originated in Central America near the time of Christ’s crucifixion. Various written accounts establish the following beliefs regarding Quetzalcoatl that were prevalent in Mesoamerica during the sixteenth century—

• He was born of a virgin
• He was associated with a new star
• He performed miracles
• He taught the practice of baptism
• He was associated with the cross
• He was a symbol of death and resurrection
• He sent disciples to preach His word
• He prophesied of future events
• He promised He would come a second time
• He was the Creator of all things
• He caused a great destruction in Central America circa 34 A.D.
• His children will become lords and heirs of the earth

Taken together, these beliefs clearly mirror the accounts of Jesus Christ’s birth, death and ministry in Palestine that are recorded in the New Testament.

Unfortunately, some scholars are reluctant to make the connection between Quetzalcoatl and Christ. One reason is that, after 200 A.D., certain Mesoamerican priests and royalty were given or took upon themselves the title of Quetzalcoatl—making it difficult to separate traditions regarding the deity Quetzalcoatl from those associated with mortal men named Quetzalcoatl.

With many different Quetzalcoatl characters occupying the stage of Mesoamerican history between the third and sixteenth centuries, it is not surprising that confusion and misinformation abound today over the true identity of the deity Quetzalcoatl.

Nevertheless, to an open-minded, truth-seeking Christian, it should not be difficult to accept the fact that the tradition of Quetzalcoatl had its origin in Christ’s visits to the Western Hemisphere. The Light of Ancient America brings this origin to life.

A Representation Of Quetzalcoatl
-The Head Of "The Feathered Serpent" With The Ram Horns (of a male lamb)-
Modern Christians sometimes have difficulty associating the symbol of a serpent with Christ since Satan appeared in the form of a serpent when he tempted Eve in the Garden of Eden. But to Israelites who faithfully followed the law of Moses in ancient America and looked forward to the coming of Christ there, the serpent was a logical symbol for the Messiah.

As explained in Numbers 21:5-9, God sent fiery serpents to plague the rebellious Israelites who followed Moses out of Egypt. He then commanded Moses to make a serpent and mount it on a pole. Any man, woman or child who was bitten by one of the poisonous serpents had only to look upon the brazen serpent in order to be healed. That brass serpent clearly foreshadowed the saving power of the future Messiah.

John the Beloved explained the symbolism this way—

“As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of Man be lifted up.” (John 3:14)

The inclusion of “quetzal” in the name Quetzalcoatl has several meanings. As the quetzal is revered even today by Middle Americans, its name conveys an attitude of reverence. It also alludes to Christ’s divinity and His ability to ascend and descend to and from heaven.

Dr. Joseph L. Allen gave his interpretation of the title “Quetzalcoatl” this way—

“In simple terms, if we were living at the time of Christ’s appearance . . . we might say: As Christ descended, His coming was like the beautiful quetzal bird. And after having taught us, He, again like the quetzal, ascended to heaven. And like the coatl (serpent), He came to earth and crawled through the dust of life and suffered death for us to gain eternal life. He was QUETZALCOATL.

The author of The Light of Ancient America believes Quetzalcoatl is a fitting description of Jesus Christ since it references the brass serpent Moses set on a pole to epitomize the saving power of the Redeemer and it also alludes to Christ’s divinity and His ability to ascend and descend to and from heaven.

The parallels between Christ and Quetzalcoatl listed above are too compelling to ignore. As one Christian leader (John Taylor) wrote—

“The story of the life of the Mexican divinity, Quetzalcoatl, closely resembles that of the Savior; so closely indeed, that we can come to no other conclusion than that Quetzalcoatl and Christ are the same being.”

Quetzalcoatl - The Meso-American Savior
http://www.thelightofancientamerica.com/quetzalcoatl.html

" Quetzalcoatl "

The "Plumed - Feathered Serpent"

That Consumes His Enemies

At The End of The Age

According To Aztec/Mayan Mythology...

"Quetzalcoatl" Will Return From The East

To Defeat His Black Twin "Tezcatlipoca"

And Together They Will Create...

"The New Fifth World Age Of Ollin"

The Toltecs (Mayans of central America) had a dualistic belief system. Quetzalcoatl's opposite was Tezcatlipoca, who supposedly sent Quetzalcoatl into exile. Alternatively, he left willingly on a raft of snakes, promising to return (from the east at the end of the age).

When the Aztecs adopted the culture of the Toltecs, they made twin gods of Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl, opposite and equal; Quetalcoatl was also called White Tezcatlipoca, to contrast him to the Black Tezcatlipoca. Together, they created the world; Tezcatlipoca lost his foot in that process.

http://www.crystalinks.com/quetzalcoatl.html

Written and researched by Margaret Odrowaz-Sypniewska, B.F.A.

Quetzalcoatl (Aztec name), the "Feathered Serpent" often wore the gorgeously long tail feathers of the Quetzal bird as his plumes upon his headdress. He loved the Quetzal's beauty thus his Aztec name. To the Mayans, he was Kulkulcan. Kulkulcan was a supreme being that was able to take the guise of thunder, wind, and fire. Both Quetzalcoatl and Kulkulcan were considered the creators of all life and civilization. As men, they were opposed to war and human sacrifice; and were kind and benevolent. They preached simplicity and virtue. Kulkulcan/Quetzalcoatl (also known as Kulkulcan, ) was associated with Venus, the Morning Star. This perhaps explains the fascination that all ancient Mexican cultures had with viewing the stars and why all ancient cities had observatories.

In human form Quetzalcoatl was a pale-skinned (the last one was rumored to be), bearded man who wore a conical hat. He often wore a long flowing robe decorated with crosses and feathers.

He was thought to have been a past ruler who introduced metallurgy, agriculture, government, and the arts to the people of Mexico. His reign was during the golden age of peace and abundance. He invented the Mayan and Aztec calendar, and gave this information to his priests. This legendary man lived a celibate life and did not drink. Drink was considered bad for all but old men, who used it to forget their pain.

Quetzalcoatl encouraged self-sacrifice by blood letting. He bled the calf of his leg to stain thorns with blood. The "Blood of Kings" was considered "jewel water." The rulers of ancient Mexico practiced blood letting as a sacrifice for the well-being of their people. As the blood was burned, along with the collecting parchment, their prayers would be taken to the heavens. Some think that Quetzalcoatl sailed across the Atlantic to his place of birth and vowed he would return again someday (from the east to take back his land).

The great enemy of Quetzalcoatl was the black Tezcatlipoca (his twin brother), the sun god. In fact, Quetzalcoatl was one of the four manifestations of the sun gods. He was the second of the five world ages represented by the sun Ehecatl. The fifth sun is called Ollin (we are entering this fifth world age). Warfare between these brothers brought about the creation and destruction of the four worlds or suns prior to our current sun. Being Quetzalcoatl's antagonistic twin, Tezcatlipoca (the black twin), promoted the cult of human sacrifice and he seemed to win power before Quetzalcoatl's departure. Men generally corrupt into the forces of evil, which is more with their nature. To be pure takes much more self-control.

Tezcatlipoca became the new leader after defeating the followers of Quetzalcoatl. He was the "evil twin" of Quetzalcoatl. Each of us has a good and bad side. Quetzalcoatl burned his houses, so that they could not be corrupted by the new regime. His loyal attendants were all turned into brightly colored birds, so they could watch his enemies and blend into the scenery. Then Quetzalcoatl sailed away on a serpent boat to spread his cult to other worlds(promising to return from the east to take back his land). Hernando Cortes sailed from Cuba with eleven ships to the Yucatan Peninsula. Francisco de Montejo was his main captain and was later made the Governor of Merida, now the capital of the Yucatan peninsula.

Many believers of the "Legend of Quetzalcoatl" thought that Hernando Cortes (1485-1547) was the returning god. Montezuma II (1466-1520) knew he made a fatal mistake in trusting this newcomer, Cortes, from across the sea. Montezuma's belief in Cortes, as Quetzalcaotl, brought about the collapse of the Aztec Empire. The Spanish conquistadore, Cortes, used the native belief to his own benefit. He portrayed the returned leader for as long as he could be believed. He took Aztec gold, their treasures, and their culture. By the time the impostor was discovered, many were killed or died from European diseases. Montezuma II was in anguish for this event, and he lost his mind.

The Spanish noted that the native Aztecs and Mayans both had crosses and this was used as an advantage to bring new Christians to the fold. The story of Quetzalcoatl reminded Spanish Christians of the story of Thomas, the Apostle, who also went off to sea looking for converts.

Many think that Quetzalcoatl might have been Jesus Christ, our Christian savior. The story of Quetzalcoatl says that he was also the only son of a supreme diety. His father was known as Tonacatecutle, meaning "god of heaven." When assasins kill his father, Quetzalcoatl throws them off a mountain.

In another version, of the story, he rubs hot chilis into their wounds, then he makes drinking cups of their skulls. Quetzalcoatl's mother was Chamalman (or Itztli). Chamalman was, like Mary, a virgin. She was celebrated at Tula's ceremonial center. Quetzalcoatl came to the city of Tula, the capital of the Toltecs, as a man.

The Mayans of the Yucatan copied the civilization of Tula and named their ceremonial center, Chichen Itza (after Itztli). Other areas of the cult of Quetzalco tl were: Teotihuacan, Cholula, Xochimilco, and Malinalco. Chimalman, Quetzalcoatl's mother, was impregnated by the god's breath, not by carnal sex.

Another version says she swallowed a piece of jade. Quetzalcoatl was both god (serpent) and man. He was worshipped from 750 A.D.(or earlier) to 1500. Quetzalcoatl let himself be imprisoned to bring mercy and reason to the world.

He was thought to have been crucified, but this might have been a Catholic priest's interpretation of the legend. Remember Catholic priests translated many Mayan and Aztec histories into Spanish. These documents are still housed in Spain and Mexico.

Quetzalcoatl and his evil twin Tezcatlipoca were both the creator and the destructor of our world. They had the responsibility of restoring everything in the aftermath and bringing forth the fifth world of Ollin. They were also thought to have passed through the body of the earth monster, Tlaltecuhti and split it to form heaven and earth.

Later, Quetzalcoatl descended into the Underworld Mictlan to obtain from its rulers the bones and ashes of generations of mankind to create the humanity of the fifth sun. He was said to have dropped the bones and broken them, thus accounting for the different sizes and statures of men. Quetzalcoatl mixed his blood with these bones and brought forth new life.

The Nahua Indians revered Quetzalcoatl for his gifts of science and arts. He was worshipped at Teotihuacan from 750 A.D. The Temple of Quetzalcoatl was the six-tiered step pyramid at Teotihuacan and the huge pyramid of Cholula on the Puebla plain was also built for him. This pyramid is the largest ancient structure in the New World.

Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was a historical figure born circa 935 A.D. He only took the god's name, since throughout the world kings often think of themselves as dieties.

Quetzalcoatl was thought to have connections to the lost planet of Atlantis. Many scholars have pointed out that there is a great similarity between the stories of Mesoamerica and of those of the Indian (from India) Nagas.

http://www.angelfire.com/mi4/polcrt/Quetzalcoatl.html

The Legend Of "Quetzalcoatl"

As told by a Daughter of Mesoamerica:

Quetzalcoatl, Our Prince, had brought religious reform to Tula. He believed that human sacrifice had to be stopped and so it was done. But others were not pleased, those who had followed Tezcatlipoca were angry. Their god had demanded the nectar of human blood as his tribute.

Thus those who followed Tezcatlipoca had plotted to do away with Our Prince. Death, unfortunately, was not to be. For in death, they believed that Quetzalcoatl would gain more followers and then his teachings could not be silenced. No, they sought to destroy him in such a manner as to discredit his message, which would be more painful than death.

Hence they set out to trick Our Prince. They held before him, one day, a mirror and to his astonishment Quetzalcoatl had seen how old he was. Falling into despair, he wondered what to do. His enemies then said to him that they could make him young again, and produced for him a cure.

Believing this was his salvation, Quetzalcoatl had taken this offering. But this cure was pulque, which his lips had never touched before. The pulque racing in his blood caused Quetzalcoatl to act not like himself. He had relations with a woman that he would have never committed before.

And when word spread about Tula, the people were shocked and ashamed. Seeing his people's faces and hearts, Our Prince decided to flee. Across the land, he and some of his loyal followers went. Until they reached Tlillan Tlapallan where Our Prince was then no more.

And so greatly did (the Toltecs) believe
in their priest Quetzalcoatl,
and so greatly obedient
and given to the things of their god were they.
and so fearful of god
all believed in Quetzalcoatl
when he left Tula...
And so much did they trust Quetzalcoatl,
that they went with him, they entrusted upon him
their wives, their children, their sick ones.
They stood up, they set off,
the old men, the old women,
no one ceased to obey,
all set off.
Suddenly he went towards the center of the sea,
toward the land of red,
and there he disappeared,
he, our prince Quetzalcoatl...

http://weber.ucsd.edu/~anthclub/quetzalcoatl/que.htm#legend

The Man

"The Flight from Tula" is a legend related to both the man Quetzalcoatl and the god Quetzalcoatl. Due to this circumstance, establishing who the legend should properly be associated with is rather difficult.

It is in all likelihood that the god Quetzalcoatl did have a such a myth in his repoitre; especially if one considers his relationship with Tezcatlipoca. Unfortunately it is also quite possible that "The Flight from Tula" occurred first and was later intertwined with the god.

Just the Facts

According to the Chimalpopoca Codex, which is a genealogy of Toltec rule, Quetzalcoatl the man entered the world in the following manner:

His father, Mixcoatl, conquered Teotihuacan and the surrounding area,established Culhuacan as the new capital. During his campaign, he entered the land now called Morelos and encountered Chimalman; and produced a child with her, Ce Actal Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl. However, Quetzalcoatl never knew his father, who was assassinated.

Safely taken away, Topiltzin was reared in the way of the god of his namesake, Quetzalcoatl. When he reached adulthood, the remaining followers of his father persuade him to return to Tula to take the throne. Though Nicholson claims that Topiltzin acts on his own accord; claiming the throne by avenging his father's death. Either way, he does enact religious reform.

Blood sacrifice is to stop while butterflies,birds and serpents (all connected to the god Quetzalcoatl) are decreed to be the only things sacrificed. Brundage agrees with Nicholson on the point that Topiltzin was trying to establish reform, but also suggests that he tried to instill a new religion with Quetzalcoatl as the god.

And as in the legend, backlash mounted against Topiltzin with the followers of Tezcatlipoca being at the forefront. Other cults opposed the reform, because like Tezcatlipoca their gods relied on a steady stream of blood; however, Tezcatlipoca's cult was the most blood thirsty of them all.

Continuing to parallel the legend, Tezcatlipoca's followers got Topiltzin drunk, whereupon he commited unsavory acts with a woman (and according to Brundage the woman is his sister).

The Road Less Traveled

Following his disgrace, Topiltzin and a group of followers either voluntarily leave Tula or are banished from it. Brundage says that the route, which is consistent throughout all the different versions of this myth, is as follows:

The Great Basin onto Tzapotlan then Morelos followed by Cholula and Cuachquechollan continuing until the Coast whereupon crossing the water arrives at Acallan with the final destination being Tlillan Tlapallan.

Demetrio Sodi postulates that Tlillan Tlapallan, which is a legendary land (the name meaning "the land of black and red, of wisdom"; Sodi, 1982:62), is in actuality none other than the Yucatan. He points to the fact that this part of Maya territory has already been exposed to Nahutal influences due to the Toltecs at Chichen Itza.

(Note: Nicholson claims that Chien Itza was founded by Topiltzin) Upon his arrival in this land, Ce Actal Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl is now known as Kukulcan (the direct Maya translation of Quetzalcoatl). He is later credited as establishing the royal dynasties in Guatemala (Quiche Maya territory).

But he is not only the progenitor of legitimate royal rule in Guatemala, in Mixteca territory where Quetzalcoatl is known as 9 Wind, he is also said to have done the same.

Multiple Quetzalcoatls

Nicholson raises an interesting point when referring to the historical persona. Since Quetzalcoatl is known to be used as a title of rulership (in addition to denoting the priesthood), there lies the possibility that there may have existed more than one Quetzalcoatl the man.

He claims that "there may have been other rulers who earlier bore this same title and played a similar role, whose lives and deed may have fused with the [my italics] Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl of Tollan, i.e., the protagonist of the basic tale current at Contact - perhaps even at Teotihuacan";

an event that is highly probable when considering the fact that Mesoamericans did enjoy acting out mythical tales, as seen with Mixcoatl. (Nicholson, 1976:39) If one also considers that myth and history often merge within the surviving texts on Ancient Mesoamerica, the possibility cannot be easily denied.

Death?

However the demise of Topiltzin, unlike his life, is not so easily known. There exists more than one version. One says that upon arriving in Tlillan Tlapallan he disappears. Another (Mexica in origin) claims that he built a raft of serpents and birds and sailed away toward the East, while leaving a prophecy behind-- he or one of his sons would return from the East and re-claim the throne.

It is this version that explains why when Cortez arrived, Montecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (a.k.a. Montezuma) had received Cortez as Quetzalcoatl and resigned his throne to him so easily. Still other accounts sway toward the mythical.

Topiltzin upon reaching the Gulf, builds a bonfire and throws himself on top of it. After which he is transformed into either the Morning Star (Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli) or the Evening Star (Xolotl).

http://weber.ucsd.edu/~anthclub/quetzalcoatl/que.htm#legend

Indians All Over America Remember Quetzalcoatl & Expect His Return
http://josephalmighty.multiply.com/journal/item/946

The Cosmic Return Of Quetzalcoatl From The East http://josephalmighty.multiply.com/journal/item/947

Jacksonville, Florida - The City Of Quetzalcoatl's Return...

The New Sun City In The Sunshine State - A Photo Album
http://josephalmighty.multiply.com/photos/album/8

*** of course there are some who believe Quetzalcoatl was never white. peace & love, Joseph

"Chango"

The Father Of The Quetzalcoatl Messianic Lineage

& The Olmec/Mayan/Aztec Indians In America

"Chango"

The Leopard King Of Thunder & Lightening

Of The Yoruba People Of W. Africa, America & The Isles

Chango/Shango - Aggayú, the owner of the river, made love with Yemayá and from them Shangó was born. But Yemayá did not want the child and Obatalá gathered him up and he raised him as his own. Treating him like a son, he put a white necklace on him and marked him, saying to him that he would be king of the world and have a castle made for him.

Shangó traveled to the Congo and the young man became so rebellious that Mother Kalunga Water had to expel him from there. Then he took his divination tablet, castle and throne, with which he had lowered from the sky, and took the way of exile. Walking and walking, he encountered with Orula, to whom he gave the tablet because he knew that he was a respectful man and would take care of it.

They also say that Shangó (Chango) fought without weapons because Osain, his godfather, gave the secret ingredients to him of güiro. When he touched it with the finger and took it to his mouth, flame would shoot out of his mouth. With this he overcame his enemies. When one hears thunder roar, one says that it is because Shangó is partying with his women or he rides by in the sky.

Shangó has three messengers: Araúa (the thunderclap), Mana Mana (lightning) and Biri Aimeyé (the dark). It receives the name of Eletimo, that means "proprietor of the knowledge and the Shining Eye".

Fighting from the canopy of the tree odán (male jagüey), he saved to Oddúa with his oche when their enemies followed them. Also he is the proprietor of ewe ire tree (rubber tree) that he calls stay on foot. With moruro wood and during sunset he prepared the secret of Osun. He knows the remedy to cure leprosy, since with the aid of Osain, he saved his brother Babalú Ayé when he became ill, and he identifies himself with a leopard or a tiger that washes itself with the blood of sheep. The name of the wizard of Changó is Lakín Shekún and, they say that with his breath, he kills and he saves.

"It is time to kill," said Chango to his horse, and galloped off to find his enemies. ...it was dawn when he reached his enemies' camp. He came rushing at them. His fury was terrible to behold. Lightning flashed from his hands. He shouted wild warrior cries. He was still dressed as a woman (like his wife Oya).

"Oya has turned into Chango," his enemies shouted when they saw the screaming apparition bearing down upon them, long hair flying and a gown flapping in the wind. They panicked.

Behind them, Oya came striding out of her house, fully armed, and began hacking right and left with her ax. Her short hair bristled and shot out electric sparks.

"If Oya helps Chango, there is victory," she shouted, cutting off arms and legs.

Chango and Oya were victorious. Since that battle, Oya has been Chango's inseparable companion in war. With Chango's thunder and Oya's storms, they are invincible and remain so to this day.

Chango - The Leopard King Of The Yoruba People Of Africa & The Carribean
http://josephalmighty.multiply.com/links/item/1044/

Chan-go (Serpent)

The Original Quetzalcoatl Of The Olmec/Mayan/Aztec From West Africa

"In the Maya culture the serpent (dragon) represents wisdom and so on. Can you please summarize your understanding, what the serpent means in the Mayan mythology?"

"The Serpent, Chan or Chicchan, represents the life force, which is the source of innate (DNA) wisdom. To deny this wisdom is to deny our life force. Nah Chan, "Place of the Serpent," is the traditional name of Palenque, seat of Pacal Votan's prophetic cycle, indicating this site as a place of wisdom.

When the serpent flies, this wisdom is liberated. This is the underlying meaning of Kukulkan or Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent, which is also connected with the release of Kundalini in Vedic yoga traditions. Hence, Quetzalcoatl represents the kundalini of prophetic realization."

Dr. José Argüelles - Valum Votan, Closer of the Cycle
http://www.earthportals.com/votan.html


SOURCE JOSEPHALMITGHTY

cybershamans (karmapolice) / CC BY-NC-ND 3.0
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Tuesday, May 31, 2011

ZODIACUL AZTEC




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Bazat pe poziţia Soarelui şi a Lunii la momentul naşterii, zodiacul aztec are un sistem format din douăsprezece semne reprezentate de animale, plante şi fenomene ale naturii.

Acestea sunt strâns legate de simbolurile sacre. Descoperă-le în cele ce urmează, pentru a afla mai multe despre tine şi despre cei dragi!


Crocodilul


Simbol al prosperităţii, semnul zodiacal crocodil este rezervat, raţional şi are multă încredere în propriile puteri. Este cunoscut ca o persoană responsabilă, generoasă şi atentă la detalii. În iubire, îi plac relaţiile stabile, este fidel, senzual şi afectuos. Când se îndrăgosteşte, aşteaptă până când este sigur de sentimentele pe care le inspiră. Se bucură de o sănătate bună, deşi ar trebui să aibă grijă să nu-şi reprime emoţiile. Dacă îşi va folosi calităţile, va obţine mereu ceea ce-şi doreşte.

Semne compatibile: trestia, cremenele, maimuţa, leopardul


Casa


Pentru cel născut în această zodie, siguranţa şi armonia în familie sunt pentru el sinonime cu paradisul. Preferă să lucreze în spaţii închise. Ca prieten şi ca partener îşi va manifesta cu intensitate sentimentele. Este imprezivibil, puţin melancolic şi are nevoie permanent de atenţia celor dragi. Siguranţa şi banii sunt ambele la fel de importante pentru el, iar dacă acestea îi sunt limitate, devine morocănos.

Semne compatibile: şarpele, trestia, iepurele, vulturul, casa


Şarpele


Este simbolul fertilităţii. Nativul acestei zodii este îndrăzneţ şi combativ. Lider înnăscut, depăşeşte cu uşurinţă orice obstacol îi iese în cale. Are nevoie de admiraţia şi de interesul celor la care ţine. În dragoste, oscilează între dorinţa pentru o iubire de durată şi aventurile trecătoare. Optimist atunci când lucrurile merg bine, tinde să dramatizeze situaţia în caz contrar, devenind nerăbdător şi autoritar.

Semne compatibile: vulturul, ploaia, leopardul, şarpele


Vântul


Plăcut şi pacifist, nativul acestui semn se împrieteneşte cu toată lumea, cu toate că în străfundul lui este un timid. Eficacitatea şi ambiţia lui îl ajută să realizeze tot ceea ce-şi propune. Când se îndrăgosteşte, îl cuprind o mulţime de temeri. Foarte sentimental şi vulnerabil, simte nevoia să i se răspundă cu aceleaşi sentimente, altfel ajunge să sufere. Dacă ar învăţa să-şi exprime nemulţumirile, ar putea să-şi depăşească nesiguranţa şi să-şi canalizeze energia constructiv.

Semne compatibile: floarea, iepurele, maimuţa, leopardul, ploaia


Iepurele


Nativul în zodia iepurelui este un muncitor neobosit şi un perfecţionist. Chiar dacă îi place să cheltuiască, ştie şi să pună deoparte pentru zile negre. Este un colaborator şi un subordonat excelent, poate şi pentru că are o abilitate înnăscută pentru negociere. Pe plan personal, este sociabil şi afectuos. Se căsătoreşte de tânăr, deşi îi este greu să fie fidel. Din partea partenerului de viaţă are nevoie de armonie, delicateţe, romantism.

Semne compatibile: vântul, şarpele, leopardul, ploaia


Ploaia


Simbol al fidelităţii şi bunătăţii, ploaia este zodia care conferă nativilor ei intuiţie şi sensibilitate auditivă. Cel născut sub semnul ploii este un om minuţios, logic, rezervat. Rece în aparenţă şi prea puţin pasional în relaţia de cuplu, este de fapt un sentimental care se teme să nu fie rănit şi schimbă un partener după altul pentru a-şi găsi sufletul pereche. N-ar fi rău să-şi cultive diplomaţia, pentru că adesea îi răneşte pe ceilalţi prin spontaneitatea cu care spune ce crede.

Semne compatibile: iepurele, vulturul, cremenele, vântul, şarpele, ploaia


Maimuţa


Cel născut în zodia maimuţei este misterios şi dă dovadă de multă creativitate. Se exprimă cu multă convingere şi transmite optimism apropiaţilor. De altfel, ca prieten, poate fi generos şi altruist. În schimb, în iubire se manifestă ca un egoist şi nu acceptă sub nicio formă să fie restricţionat. Preferă mai degrabă să vorbească ore în şir cu partenerul, decât să se dedea unor pasiuni tulburătoare. Cum este de obicei cu capul în nori, este predispus accidentelor de tot felul, de aceea, ar trebui să fie mai responsabil.

Semne compatibile: crocodilul, vântul, iepurele, floarea, maimuţa


Trestia


Emblemă a luminii şi a înţelepciunii, nativul în zodia trestiei îi predispune pe cei din jur să fie mai buni unii cu alţii. Priveşte viaţa cu optimism şi se bucură de ea indiferent că e sărac sau bogat. Mai bun prieten decât amant, atrage pe oricine prin originalitatea cu care trăieşte. Nu se plictiseşte şi ştie să surprindă. Caută să fie iubit, dar nu tânjeşte după multă afectivitate. Deschis şi încântător, poate deveni antipatic şi agresiv dacă se simte restricţionat.

Semne compatibile: crocodilul, floarea, vântul


Leopardul


Nativul în zodia leopardului este puternic, îndrăzneţ şi serios în tot ceea ce face. Recunoaşterile de orice fel îl impulsionează. Exigent cu sine însuşi şi cu ceilalţi, iartă cu greu greşelile proprii sau ale altora şi profită de orice ocazie pentru a-şi demonstra calităţile. Este iubit de prieteni şi rude pentru loialitatea şi dedicaţia lui. Cu partenerul de viaţă este pasional, dar şi extrem de posesiv. Dacă ar fi mai puţin orgolios şi intolerant, s-ar putea bucura mai mult de viaţă.

Semne compatibile: crocodilul, trestia, iepurele, vântul


Vulturul


Cel ce s-a născut în această zodie are temperament de lider. Îi place să-şi asume riscuri şi să arate că poate face faţă provocărilor, este competitiv şi plin de energie. Impulsiv şi pasional, nu suportă să i se dea ordine, cu toate că este sociabil. Apreciat de prieteni, în iubire este nerăbdător, dorind să-ţi trăiască intens sexualitatea. Lăcomia, gelozia şi orgoliul sunt cele mai mari defecte ale sale. Dacă ar reuşi să fie mai autocritic, ar învăţa să cedeze şi să-şi controleze izbucnirile de furie.

Semne compatibile: şarpele, ploaia, vulturul


Cremenele


Voinţa de fier este calitatea cea mai mare a nativului în această zodie. Îi permite să abordeze proiecte ambiţioase. Este gata oricând să se sacrifice pentru alţii. În cuplu, nu este un nonconformist. Se fereşte de aventuri, preferând relaţiile stabile. Impetuos şi imaginativ, poate fi curtenitor, dar şi autoritar. Dacă ar putea să-şi exprime anxietăţile, ar fi mai puţin agresiv.

Semne compatibile: crocodilul, trestia, ploaia, vulturul


Floarea


Cunoscut pentru aptitudinile lui artistice, nativul în zodia florii îşi doreşte să trăiască fără grabă şi fără să facă vreun compromis. Are o intuiţie foarte bună. Ca prieten şi ca partener de viaţă nu este deschis către confidenţe sau concesii, dar în străfundul lui este un sentimental, care are nevoie să fie răsfăţat. Mai mult romantic decât sexual cere din partea partenerului său originalitate şi imaginaţie.

Semne compatibile: trestia, vântul, iepurele, ploaia, maimuţa, leopardul, floarea

Află din tabelul următor care este semnul tău sau al celor dragi!

Crocodilul Casa Şarpele


4, 16, 28 ianuarie 5, 17, 29 ianuarie 7, 19, 31 ianuarie
2, 14, 26 februarie 3, 15, 27 februarie 5, 17 februarie
10, 22 martie 11, 23 martie 1, 13, 25 martie
3, 15, 27 aprilie 4, 16, 28 aprilie 6, 18, 30 aprilie
9, 21 mai 10, 22 mai 12, 24 mai
2, 14, 26 iunie 3,15, 27 iunie 5, 17, 29 iunie
8, 20 iulie 9, 21 iulie 11, 23 iulie
1, 13, 25 august 2, 14, 26 august 4, 16, 28 august
6, 18, 30 septembrie 7, 19 septembrie 9, 21 septembrie
12, 24 octombrie 1, 13, 25 octombrie 3, 15, 27 octombrie
5, 17, 29 noiembrie 6, 18, 30 noiembrie 8, 20 noiembrie
11, 23 decembrie 12, 24 decembrie 2, 14, 26 decembrie


Vântul Iepurele Ploaia



8, 20 ianuarie 11, 23 ianuarie 3, 15, 27 ianuarie

1, 6, 18 februarie 9, 21 februarie 13, 25 februarie
2, 14, 26 martie 5, 17, 29 martie 9, 21 martie
7, 19 aprilie 10, 22 aprilie 2, 14, 26 aprilie
1, 13, 25 mai 4, 16, 28 mai 8, 20 mai
6, 18, 30 iunie 9, 21 iunie 1, 13, 25 iunie
12, 24 iulie 3, 15, 27 iulie 7, 19, 31 iulie
5, 17, 29 august 8, 20 august 12, 24 august
10, 22 septembrie 1, 13, 25 septembrie 5, 17, 29 septembrie
4, 16, 28 octombrie 7, 19, 31 octombrie 11, 23 octombrie
9, 21 noiembrie 12, 24 noiembrie 4, 16, 28 noiembrie
3, 15, 27 decembrie 6, 18, 30 decembrie 10, 22 decembrie


Maimuţa Trestia Leopardul


1, 13, 25 ianuarie 10, 22 ianuarie 9, 21 ianuarie
11, 23 februarie 8, 20 februarie 7, 19 februarie
7, 19, 31 martie 4, 16, 28 martie 3, 15, 27 martie
12, 24 aprilie 9, 21 aprilie 8, 20 aprilie
6, 18, 30 mai 3, 15, 27 mai 2, 14, 26 mai
11, 23 iunie 8, 20 iunie 7, 19 iunie
5, 17, 29 iulie 2, 14, 26 iulie 1, 13, 25 iulie

10, 22 august 7, 19, 31 august 6, 18, 30 august
3, 15, 27 septembrie 12, 24 septembrie 11, 23 septembrie
9, 21 octombrie 6, 18, 30 octombrie 5, 17, 29 octombrie
2, 14, 26 noiembrie 11, 23 noiembrie 10, 22 noiembrie
8, 20 decembrie 5, 17, 29 decembrie 4, 16, 28 decembrie


Vulturul Cremenele Floarea


12, 24 ianuarie 2, 14, 26 ianuarie 6, 18, 30 ianuarie
10, 22 februarie 12, 24 februarie 4, 16, 28, 29 februarie
6, 18, 30 martie 8, 20 martie 12, 24 martie
11, 13 aprilie 1, 13, 25 aprilie 5, 17, 29 aprilie
5, 17, 29 mai 7, 19, 31 mai 11, 23 mai
10, 22 iunie 12, 24 iunie 4, 16, 28 iunie
4, 16, 28 iulie 6, 18, 30 iulie 10, 22 iulie
9, 21 august 11, 23 august 3, 15, 27 august
2, 14, 26 septembrie 4, 16, 28 septembrie 8, 20 septembrie
8, 20 octombrie 10, 22 octombrie 2, 14, 26 octombrie
1, 13, 25 noiembrie 3, 15, 27 noiembrie 7, 19 noiembrie
7, 19, 31 decembrie 9, 21 decembrie 1, 15, 25 decembrie


cybershamans (karmapolice) / CC BY-NC-ND 3.0

Sunday, May 22, 2011

The Aztecs, cannibalism and corpse medicine (1)

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When we ‘accuse’ the Aztecs of cannibalism, are we not conveniently ignoring many perhaps equally ‘dubious’ - and widespread - practices that went on in other parts of the world not only at the same time but for centuries after? We are privileged to offer on our website this thought-provoking and fascinating essay written specially for us by Dr. Richard Sugg, Research Fellow in Literature and Medicine in the Department of English Studies, Durham University.



Pic 1: looking west from Madeira
Pic 1: looking west from Madeira (Click on image to enlarge)

Eating the Soul: Forms of Cannibalism from the Aztecs to Charles II
It seems that the Aztecs were a particular puzzle to the Spanish conquerors of 1519, and to those Europeans who heard reports of them in the following months and years.


In these extraordinary new continents, the home of Amazons and men whose heads grew beneath their shoulders, of whole mountains of gold, and a bewildering unexpected kaleidoscope of dazzling and deadly flora and fauna, perhaps nothing was more baffling than this ancient civilisation, locked away in the heart of lands that (according to the Christian bible) simply had no right to even exist.


On the whole, America did not have cities. It had small, isolated communities whose technology was well-adapted to certain immediate ends, but clearly very limited in the eyes of the British, French and Spanish travellers who crossed the Atlantic in the years after Columbus.


Pic 2: painting of the capital city of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan by Miguel Covarrubias, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City
Pic 2: painting of the capital city of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan by Miguel Covarrubias, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City (Click on image to enlarge)

Compare this to the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan. It had a population which, at two hundred thousand, was roughly twice that of Seville, then Spain’s largest city. It had a temple precinct ‘of perhaps five hundred metres square, dense with the immaculately worked masonry of more than eighty structures...’ (1).


The palace of the emperor Moctezuma was ‘so marvellous that it seems to me impossible to describe its excellence and grandeur ... in Spain there is nothing to compare with it’. So said Hernando Cortés. Even before they had passed through the surrounding cities and villages to this imperial realm itself, one of Cortes’ soliders, Bernal Diaz, felt himself to be in the midst of ‘an enchanted vision’, while his men ‘asked whether it was not all a dream’ (2).


Pic 3: stone skullrack, Templo Mayor Museum, Mexico City
Pic 3: stone skullrack, Templo Mayor Museum, Mexico City (Click on image to enlarge)

And yet these visions of grandeur, of order and harmonious organisation, only seemed to make the religious practices of the Aztecs all the more startling.


Led to the summit of a sacrificial pyramid, captive men and women were habitually slaughtered, their hearts torn out still beating, their bodies tumbled back down the bloodied steps which they had just ascended. These corpses would then be carefully dismembered.


Men danced in flayed skins. Different body parts were deliberately handed out to privileged Aztecs to be eaten. As Inga Clendinnen points out, the seeming contrast between order and moral chaos, between this formidable civilisation and that perceived barbarity, was to baffle not only the first European soldiers, but many scholars of the region in later eras.


Writing in the nineteenth century, the historian W.H. Prescott summed up the sense of paradox: ‘Surely, never were refinement and the extreme of barbarism brought so closely into contact with each other!’ (3)


Pic 4: part of the (replica) Tradescant family tomb, Museum of Garden History, London
Pic 4: part of the (replica) Tradescant family tomb, Museum of Garden History, London (Click on image to enlarge)

Those studying the Aztecs have not universally agreed on the meaning of these remarkable ceremonies. Without attempting to finally explain them myself, I want to compare them to two broadly similar phenomena which were also occurring in the Americas and in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.


One is the (usually less spectacular) cannibalism found in regions such as Brazil and Canada. The second is a form of cannibalism now almost wholly blotted from the collective memory of Europe.


For over two hundred years, the richest, most pious, most highly educated men and women of Paris, Wittenberg, and London used human body parts as medicine.


Pic 5: Toxcatl sacrifice scene, Florentine Codex (Book 1); note the sun looking on
Pic 5: Toxcatl sacrifice scene, Florentine Codex (Book 1); note the sun

Let us recall three especially memorable features of the Aztec rites. First: these notorious killings had all the seriousness, all the poise, precision and formula of any great religion.


The source of all this violence was finally cosmic and supernatural. Second: it seems to have been vital that the living heart should be wrenched from the hot core of the chest and held up, dripping and steaming, to the watchful eye of the sun.


Life - the most potent, most basic source of vitality - could be somehow fed to the Aztec deities. Not only that. We find that, thirdly, life could be fed to those fortunate Aztecs who were granted body parts for their personal consumption.


Pic 6: ‘Tupinamba portrayed in cannibalistic feast’ in woodcut by Hans Staden (original 1557)
Pic 6: ‘Tupinamba portrayed in cannibalistic feast’ in woodcut by Hans Staden (original 1557) (Click on image to enlarge)

How does this compare with the cannibalism of now more obscure American peoples in Brazil or Canada?


These man-eating tribes often believed that they could absorb the courage or the energy of their defeated enemies by eating their flesh or their hearts. In some cases, even if the victim was not alive, it was considered necessary to eat a body within four days. This was because its spirit would cling to it for that span before ascending to heaven.


If the body was eaten, then the spirit’s ascent was thwarted. The rituals of tribes such as the Huron, the Iroquois and the Tupinamba were also very precise, well-ordered and controlled. Once again, they were fundamentally religious.


Pic 7: front cover of Professor Beth Conklin’s pioneering study of the Wari
Pic 7: front cover of Professor Beth Conklin’s pioneering study of the Wari (Click on image to enlarge)

We might of course object that these seemed to be religions marked by habitual violence - and certainly the ordeal of victims prior to cannibal ceremonies was often horrifically cruel. But religion was also central to another, very different form of New World cannibalism. Many tribes ate not just dead enemies, but the naturally deceased members of their own clan.


This was considered an absolutely sacred duty, vital both for the dead and the living. In many cases it seems again that participants in these funeral rites were eating something like the spirit or soul of the deceased, absorbing it and conserving it in a kind of sacred recycling.


Hence, if the soul was thought to reside in the bones, people would take the trouble to grind these into powder and mix the powder into drink or honey. This kind of respectful funerary cannibalism was still occurring among a Brazilian tribe called the Wari’, as late as the 1960s.


Living with the tribe at the end of the twentieth century, the American anthropologist Beth Conklin learned that the practice was a highly reverent one. Participants must use special wooden splints to avoid touching flesh with their hands, for example. There was no question of merely satisfying hungry appetites. Indeed, in some cases tribe members felt it vital to force down putrid flesh, even though it made them nauseous and often sick (4).


Pic 8: the classic image of Aztec cannibalism, Codex Magliabecchiano (note this is a POST-conquest manuscript)
Pic 8: the classic image of Aztec cannibalism, Codex Magliabecchiano (note this is a POST-conquest manuscript) (Click on image to enlarge)

Cannibalism seems to look rather different when we find it carried out as part of ordinary funeral customs. All those involved agree on the acts, with those eaten having been well aware what would happen to their dead corpses, and very keen that it should do so. To such peoples, this was a kind of honourable and sacred burial.


Perhaps because tribe members were usually consumed after they had died naturally, we do not often hear of native Americans drinking live, fresh blood. But the practice was not unknown. In 1675 a native Indian was executed by the colonial authorities of Massachusetts in New England.


As he lay dying, a friend of his ran up, ‘and with his knife made a hole in his breast to his heart, and sucked out his heart’s blood’. Questioned about this, he insisted that he would now have the strength of two men (5). Once again that powerful religious belief resurfaces. The principle of strength and life can be transferred and absorbed through the material or fluid of the body.


Pic 9: John Banister delivering an anatomical lecture at the Barber-Surgeons’ Hall
Pic 9: John Banister delivering an anatomical lecture at the Barber-Surgeons’ Hall (Click on image to enlarge)

And this brings us to our secondarea of comparison. Even as the Massachusetts Indian lay with his mouth clamped to the dying man’s chest, cannibalism was flourishing across much of civilised Christian Europe.


At this point the reigning English monarch, Charles II, was a particularly strong supporter of corpse medicine, distilling an extract of human skull in his own personal laboratory at Whitehall. On his death-bed in 1685, Charles was given high doses of this ‘spirit of skull’, in the hope that it would soothe the convulsions which wracked his dying body.


And Charles was far from alone. Corpse medicine was used, accepted, or actively recommended by many of the most powerful and learned men of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Among them was the French King, Francis I (1494-1547), the Italian anatomist Berengario da Carpi (1460-1530), the poet and preacher, John Donne (1572-1631) and Francis Bacon (1561-1626), seen by many as the founder of modern science in England.


Other advocates included John Banister, surgeon to Elizabeth I [see Pic 9], and Shakespeare’s son-in-law, the physician John Hall, who in 1623 used human flesh to treat a rich landowner suffering from epilepsy. In the Restoration period, after 1660, the eminent chemist, Robert Boyle, was an especially keen supporter of corpse medicine, and drugs derived from the human body continued to form a routine part of medical treatment well into the eighteenth century.

Pic 10: interior of John Hall’s consulting room, Halls Croft, Stratford-upon-Avon
Pic 10: interior of John Hall’s consulting room, Halls Croft, Stratford-upon-Avon (Click on image to enlarge)


Just what were doctors and patients using? A short answer is: almost everything. Back in classical Rome certain epileptic patients were prescribed several doses of human liver (usually derived from a gladiator, who (again) was especially strong and courageous).


In 1739 the Irish clergyman, John Keogh, recommends oil distilled from human brains, pulverised heart, bladder stones, warm blood, breast milk, and extract of gall (among many other things). Usually, however, the preferred parts of the body were more limited.


The most commonly cited ones are: fresh blood; fat; bone (either powdered or distilled); and flesh. One last favourite was a kind of moss which grows on human skulls - seen here in this portrait of the gardener and collector, John Tradescant the younger (1608-1662), who was one more advocate of such remedies.


Pic 11: portrait of John Tradescant the Younger attributed to Thomas De Critz, National Portrait Gallery
Pic 11: portrait of John Tradescant the Younger attributed to Thomas De Critz, National Portrait Gallery (Click on image to enlarge)

Human flesh seems to have been the most popular of these cures. In the late sixteenth century, as Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson wrote and staged their famous plays, European travellers and merchants were smuggling increasing numbers of Egyptian mummies back into France and Britain. This was rarely for the sake of private collectors.


Rather, the distinctively dry, dark, and crumbly flesh of these curiously preserved bodies was one of the most popular (and profitable) types of cannibalistic medicine. Usually powdered, it was a well known treatment for epilepsy, for bruising, and for haemorrhaging, whether internal or external.


It would be given as a drink mixed with other ingredients, or soaked into a linen compress and applied to the wounded part of the patient’s body. Francis I was such a keen believer in its efficacy against bruises that he never travelled without a small amount of mummy in his purse.


When Shakespeare has Falstaff describe himself as ‘a mountain of mummy’ he is alluding more to the medical substance than to the individual bodies of long-dead Egyptians. Similarly, references to ‘mummy’ before the eighteenth century almost always mean some of the drug, rather than a mummified body.

Pic 12: Egyptian mummy, Vatican Museums
Pic 12: Egyptian mummy, Vatican Museums (Click on image to enlarge)


We can imagine that this kind of medicine did not seem as shockingly cannibalistic as the habits of the Aztecs or the Tupinamba. Nothing had to be chewed. There was no raw stench - either of life or of death. Even the usual fibrous texture of ordinary flesh had been transformed by the long processes of time and the special embalming materials into a hard, dry, powdery substance.


For all that, the treatment was still cannibalism. But in fact the ancient corpses of Egypt were not the only source of human flesh being swallowed by epileptics or accident victims in the days of Shakespeare or Samuel Pepys. Medicine in general fell into different camps in this era.


Traditional thinkers supported the ideas and cures derived from the Roman physician Claudius Galen (c.120-200AD). More modern physicians and patients had shifted to new theories proposed by the influential Swiss doctor, Paracelsus (c.1493-1541). Paracelsus and his numerous followers had no interest in the venerable cadavers of the Pharoahs.


For them, the most valuable flesh was that of a young man, about twenty four, and preferably red-headed. He should have died a violent death, preferably by hanging or drowning. And his flesh (though it needed treating carefully) should be acquired as soon as possible after he died. If physicians knew the value of such corpses, Paracelsus insisted, they would never be left hanging on gibbets for more than three days (6).


Pic 13: Paracelsus
Pic 13: Paracelsus (Click on image to enlarge)

We seem here to be rather closer to the cannibalism of the New World. Such bodies were of course usually those of condemned criminals. But they were very much recognisable as human flesh - and, indeed, during their very public deaths, recognisable, also, as human individuals.


Yet the body could be put to uses which were still more startling than this. Some way into the nineteenth century, beheading was the standard form of execution on the Danish islands of Amak and Moen.


Here crowds of epileptics jostled at the scaffold of the condemned, thrusting up cups in which they caught the blood flowing from the still twitching body. Mabel Peacock, the folklorist who cites this vivid account, also notes that blood was a known cure for epilepsy in Switzerland in the 1860s (7).

Pic 14: beheading of a criminal, Europe, 16th century
Pic 14: beheading of a criminal, Europe, 16th century (Click on image to enlarge)



By that stage, such treatments were increasingly limited to the poorer, uneducated members of society. But that was certainly not the case during and after the European Renaissance. The influential Italian philosopher Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499) talked of doctors who distilled blood as a medicine.


Not only that, but he believed that the aged could rejuvenate themselves if they would ‘suck the blood of an adolescent’ who was ‘clean, happy, temperate, and whose blood is excellent but perhaps a little excessive’.


As Karen Gordon-Grube points out, the New England Puritan minister and lay physician, Edward Taylor (c.1658-1702) recorded that ‘“human blood, drunk warm and new is held good in the falling sickness”; while ‘drinking human blood “recent and hot” was still being recommended for epilepsy by English physicians in 1747’ (8).


Pic 15: Blood remedy, 19th century, said to ‘cleanse blood from all impurities’
Pic 15: Blood remedy, 19th century, said to ‘cleanse blood from all impurities’ (Click on image to enlarge)

In much of Europe, criminals were usually hung.


It may be that, if they had been routinely beheaded, we would now have far more accounts like that given by Mabel Peacock. What we do know for certain is that physicians did not seem to consider it difficult to obtain fresh human blood.


Ficino implies that willing donors will allow the elderly to suck it directly from them (rather than like so many vampiric leeches) - and that financial incentive will easily secure such assistance. Perhaps many poor people in these harsh societies were forced to realise that their blood was more valuable than their labour.


Yet this was not the only source. In this epoch both the rich and the poor would habitually go to a surgeon or apothecary to be let blood. This standard medical purging would often involve quite large quantities. We know that surgeons would sometimes keep the blood of their customers, using it as a kind of advertisement, displayed in glass jars in their shop windows.


Pic 16: traditional European leeching jar for medical purging
Pic 16: traditional European leeching jar for medical purging (Click on image to enlarge)

So much for flesh and blood. Human fat was thought to be a good cure for rheumatism.


In his 1605 comedy Volpone, or The Fox, Ben Jonson hints that the anatomists sell this, deriving it from the criminal corpses which they used for their annual dissections. A slightly more direct source was the executioner himself.


In 1694 the French royal apothecary Pierre Pomet also notes that fat can be obtained from Parisian apothecaries, but adds that, ‘as everybody knows in Paris, the public executioner sells it to those that want it, so that the druggists and apothecaries sell very little’.


The idea of buying one’s medicine from the hangman may now make us shudder faintly. Yet, ironically, if customers were indeed being supplied at the scaffold (or at least in presence of the corpse) they could have been assured that they were getting genuine human fat, and not some inferior animal substitute.


Pic 17: ‘prosperous pharmacy’, middle ages, Museum of the Royal Phamaceutical Society of Great Britain
Pic 17: ‘prosperous pharmacy’, middle ages, Museum of the Royal Phamaceutical Society of Great Britain (Click on image to enlarge)

Pierre Pomet reminds us how profitable corpse medicine was when he adds that the executioner would also prepare human skulls for sale - removing the brains, stripping off membranes and sawing them into two pieces.


Powdered human skull had a number of uses. It might be given against dysentery, against epilepsy, or - as we have seen - against convulsions of any kind. It was also valuable in treating various diseases of the head. Some held that it derived its power from the brain, thought to have evaporated into the material of the skull after death.


Pic 18: skulls, Kent, 19th century - from ‘Lavengro’ by George Borrow
Pic 18: skulls, Kent, 19th century - from ‘Lavengro’ by George Borrow (Click on image to enlarge)

Human skulls could commonly be seen in the windows of London apothecaries some way into the eighteenth century. But it was not just the skull itself which was considered to have medical powers. If left exposed to the air long enough, skulls would grow a kind of moss. This was highly valued as an agent against bleeding.


For nose-bleeds, it might simply be inserted into the nostrils, as snuff used to be. The Church minister, Richard Baxter (1615-1691), often did this to combat the severe nose-bleeds which afflicted him through his quite long but cruelly unhealthy life. Again, Robert Boyle was a particularly fervent supporter of skull-moss.


He not only used it to cure himself of a nose-bleed, but swore that it would stop bleeding (from the nose or from a cut vein) if it was simply held in the patient’s hand. As with other quite costly forms of corpse medicine, skull-moss was sufficiently profitable to encourage fraud. Hence richer customers might want to buy a complete skull, with moss still attached, to ensure that they had the authentic variety.


Pic 19: Intricate copper engraving (1834) showing the parts of the human skull
Pic 19: Intricate copper engraving (1834) showing the parts of the human skull (Click on image to enlarge)

Some forms of corpse medicine seem to have been quite as rawly cannibalistic as the sacrifices of the Aztecs or the funeral rites of the Wari’.


Additionally, they were associated with the degradation of the execution scaffold, and perhaps also tainted by a sometimes unscrupulous drive for profit (it was claimed that some merchants baked up the flesh of beggars, lepers or even camels as a fraudulent substitute for ‘true mummy’.)


A further comparison between the New World and the Old World is this: like the Aztecs or the tribal communities of Brazil, European Christians were often seeking to eat or drink the very elixir of human life. They at times hoped to imbibe not merely fresh blood, but the very soul which was thought to be carried in this precious liquid.

Pic 20: ‘Hearts of Mary and Jesus’, Royal Museum of Art and History, Brussels
Pic 20: ‘Hearts of Mary and Jesus’, Royal Museum of Art and History, Brussels (Click on image to enlarge)

cybershamans

source mexicolore

(karmapolice) / CC BY-NC-ND 3.0

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